Browse Topic: Power and Propulsion

Items (59,006)

How Can a Sustainable Energy Infrastructure based on Renewable Fuels Contribute to Global Carbon Neutrality

2024-01-3023To be published on 07/02/2024

Abstract. With the COP28 decisions the world is thriving for a future net-zero-CO2 society and the and current regulation acts, the energy infrastructure is changing in direction of renewables in energy production. All industry sectors will extend their share of direct or indirect electrification. The question might arise if the build-up of the renewables in energy production is fast enough. Demand and supply might not match in the short- and mid-term. The paper will discuss the roadmaps, directions and legislative boundary parameter in the regenerative energy landscape and their regional differences. National funding on renewables will gain an increasing importance to accelerate the energy transformation. The are often competing in attracting the same know-how on a global scale. In addition the paper includes details about energy conversion, efficiency as well as potential transport scenarios from production to the end consumer. Technologies are compared in respect of their TLR level

Rothbart, Martin

Evaluation and simulation of wheel steering functionality on a Road to Rig test bench

2024-01-3000To be published on 07/02/2024

The automotive industry is continuously evolving, demanding innovative approaches to enhance testing methodologies and preventive identify potential issues. This paper proposes an advancement test approach in the area of the overall vehicle system included steering system and power train on a “Road to Rig” test bench. The research aims to revolutionize the conventional testing process by identifying faults at an early stage and eliminating the need to rely solely on field tests. The motivation behind this research is to optimize the test bench setup and bring it even closer to real field tests. Key highlights of the publication include the introduction of an expanded load spectrum, incorporating both steering angle and speed parameters along the test track. The load includes different route and driving profiles like on a freeway, overland and city drive in combination with the steering angles. Furthermore, for the first time, specific driving manoeuvres such as slalom driving and

Kopp, Lennart, Harfmann, Patrick, Niederberger, Lucas, Schwämmle, Timm, Kley, Markus

Numerical Investigation of the Effect of Piston Geometry on the Performance of a Ducted Fuel Injection Engine

2024-01-3024To be published on 07/02/2024

Ducted Fuel Injection (DFI) engines have emerged as a promising technology in the pursuit of a clean and efficient combustion process. This article aims at elucidating the effect of piston geometry on the engine performance and emissions of a metal DFI engine. Three different types of pistons were investigated and the main piston design features including the piston bowl diameter, piston bowl slope angle, duct angle and the injection nozzle position were examined. To achieve the target, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations were conducted coupled to a reduced chemical kinetics mechanism. Extensive validations were performed against the measured data from a conventional diesel engine. To calibrate the soot model, genetic algorithm and machine learning methods were utilized. The simulation results highlight the pivotal role played by piston bowl diameter and fuel injection angle in controlling soot emissions of a DFI engine. An increase in piston bowl diameter increases the room

Shakeel, Mohammad Raghib, Liu, Xinlei, Nyrenstedt, Gustav, Mueller, Charles J., Im, Hong

Measurements in the Recirculation Path of a Fuel Cell System

2024-01-3009To be published on 07/02/2024

When using "green" hydrogen, fuel cell technology plays a key role in emission-free mobility. A powertrain based on fuel cells (FC) shows its advantages over battery-electric powertrains when the requirement profile primarily demands high performance over a longer period of time, high flexible availability and short refueling times. In addition, FC achieves higher effi-ciencies than the combustion of hydrogen in a gas engine, meaning that the chemical energy is used more efficiently than with established combustion engines. When using FC technology, numerous companies in Baden-Württemberg can contribute their specific expertise from the traditional automotive construction and supplier business. This includes auxiliary units in the air (cathode) and hydrogen (anode) path, such as the air compressor, the H2 recycling pump, humidifier, cooling system, power electronics, valve and pressure tank technology as well as components of the fuel cell stack itself. The periphery of the media paths

Allmendinger, Frank, Martin, Benedikt, Schmidtmann, Marlen

A computational study of hydrogen direct injection using a pre-chamber in an opposed-piston engine

2024-01-3010To be published on 07/02/2024

Opposed-piston two-stroke engines offer numerous advantages over conventional four-stroke engines, both in terms of fundamental principles and technical aspects. The reduced heat losses and large volume-to-surface area ratio inherently result in a high thermodynamic efficiency. Additionally, the mechanical design is simpler and requires fewer components compared to conventional four-stroke engines. When combining this engine concept with alternative fuels such as hydrogen and pre-chamber technology, a potential route for carbon-neutral powertrains is observed. To ensure safe engine operation using hydrogen as fuel, it is crucial to consider strict safety measures to prevent issues such as knock, pre-ignition, and backfiring. One potential solution to these challenges is the use of direct injection, which has the potential to improve engine efficiency and expand the range of load operation. In order to achieve compression ignition with hydrogen, it is necessary to either have high

Menaca, Rafael, Moreno Cabezas, Kevin, Shakeel, Mohammad Raghib, Vorraro, Giovanni, Turner, James W. G., Im, Hong G.

Investigation of Stator Cooling Concepts of an Electric Machine for Maximization of Continuous Power

2024-01-3014To be published on 07/02/2024

With the automotive industry's increasing focus on electromobility and the growing share of electric cars, new challenges are arising for the development of electric motors. The requirements for torque and power of traction motors are constantly growing, while installation space, costs and weight are increasingly becoming limiting factors. Moreover, there is an inherent conflict in the design between power density and efficiency of an electric motor. Thus, a main focus in today's development lies on space-saving and yet effective and innovative cooling systems. This paper presents an approach for a multi-physical optimization that combines the domains of electromagnetics and thermodynamics. Based on a reference machine, this simulative study examins a total of nine different stator cooling concepts varying the cooling duct positions and end-winding cooling concepts. To ensure the highest possible comparability, the rotor geometry as well as the overall dimensions in terms of outer

Reinecke, Mike, Karayel, Akif, von Schöning, Hendrik, Schaefer, Uwe, Moullion, Matthias, Faessler, Victor, Lehmann, Robert

Optimal and Prototype Dimensioning of Electrified Drives for Automated Driving

2024-01-3021To be published on 07/02/2024

Electrified drives will change significantly in the wake of the further introduction of automated driving functions. Precise drive dimensioning, taking automated driving into account, opens up further potential in terms of drive operation and efficiency as well as optimal component design. Central element for unlocking the dimensioning potentials is the knowledge about the driving functions and their application. In this paper the implications of automated driving on the drive and component design are discussed. A process and a virtual toolchain for electric drive development from concept optimization to detailed component dimensioning is presented. The process is subdivided into a concept optimization part for finding the optimal drive topology and layout and a detailed prototype dimensioning process, where the final detailed drive dimensioning is carried out. Furthermore. the detailed simulation allows the drive investigation in representative customer operation as well as automated

Sturm, Axel Wolfgang, Brandes, Gerrit, Sander, Marcel, Henze, Roman, Küçükay, Ferit

Neural Network Modeling of Black Box Controls for Internal Combustion Engine Calibration

2024-01-2995To be published on 07/02/2024

The calibration of Engine Control Units (ECUs) for road vehicles is challenged by stringent legal and environmental regulations, coupled with short development cycles. The growing number of vehicle variants, although sharing similar engines and control algorithms, requires different calibrations. Additionally, modern engines feature increasingly number of adjustment variables, along with complex parallel and nested conditions within the software, demanding a significant amount of measurement data during development. The current state-of-the-art (White Box) model-based ECU calibration proves effective but involves considerable effort for model construction and validation. This is often hindered by limited function documentation, available measurements, and hardware representation capabilities. This article introduces a model-based calibration approach using Neural Networks (Black Box) for two distinct ECU functional structures with minimal software documentation. The ECU is operated on

Meli, Matteo, Wang, Zezhou, Bailly, Peter, Pischinger, Stefan

Numerical Investigation of Injection and Mixture Formation in Hydrogen Combustion Engines by Means of Different 3D-CFD Simulation Approaches

2024-01-3007To be published on 07/02/2024

For the purpose of achieving carbon-neutrality in the mobility sector by 2050, hydrogen can play a crucial role as an alternative energy carrier, not only for direct usage in fuel cell-powered vehicles, but also for fueling internal combustion engines. This paper focuses on the numerical investigation of high-pressure hydrogen injection and the mixture formation inside a high-tumble engine with a conventional liquid fuel injector for passenger cars. Since the traditional 3D-CFD approach of simulating the inner flow of an injector requires a very high spatial and temporal resolution, the enormous computational effort, especially for full engine simulations, is a big challenge for an effective virtual development of modern engines. An alternative and more pragmatic lagrangian 3D-CFD approach offers opportunities for a significant reduction in computational effort without sacrificing reliability. The detailed and the lagrangian approach are both validated against optical measurements

Schmelcher, Robin, Kulzer, Andre, Gal, Thomas, Vacca, Antonino, Chiodi, Marco

Simulation of Hydrogen Combustion in Spark Ignition Engines Using a Modified Wiebe Model

2024-01-3016To be published on 07/02/2024

Due to its physical and chemical properties, hydrogen is an attractive fuel for internal combustion engines, providing grounds for studies on hydrogen engines. It is common practice to use a mathematical model for basic engine design and an essential part of this is the simulation of the combustion cycle, which is the subject of the work presented here. One of the most widely used models for describing combustion in gasoline and diesel engines is the Wiebe model. However, for cases of hydrogen combustion in DI engines, which are characterized by mixture stratification and in some cases significant incomplete combustion, practically no data can be found in the literature on the application of the Wiebe model. Based on Wiebe's formulas, a mathematical model of hydrogen combustion has been developed. The model allows making computations for both DI and PFI hydrogen engines. The parameters of the Wiebe model were assessed for three different engines in a total of 26 operating modes. The

Osetrov, Oleksandr, Haas, Rainer

Harmonic injection method for NVH optimization of permanent magnet synchronous motors considering the structural characteristics of the machine

2024-01-3015To be published on 07/02/2024

Noise, vibration and harshness (NVH) is one of the most important performance evaluation aspect of electric motors. Among the different causes of the NVH issues of electrical drives, the high-frequency spatial and temporal harmonics of the electrical drive system is of great importance. To reduce the tonal noise of the electric motors, harmonic injection methods can be applied. However, a lot of the existing related work focuses more on improving the optimization process of the parameter settings of the injected current/flux/voltage, which are usually limited to some specific working conditions. The applicability and effectivity of the algorithm to the whole frequency/speed range are not investigated. In this paper, a multi-domain pipeline of harmonic injection controller design for a permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) is proposed. And the structural properties of the machine described by 2-dimensional transfer functions are used to help effectively set proper harmonic injection

Fu, Tongfang, Xu, Zhipeng, Günther, Marco, Pischinger, Stefan, Böld, Simon

The 3D-CFD Contribution to H2 Engine Development for CV and Off-Road Application

2024-01-3017To be published on 07/02/2024

The hydrogen engine is one of the promising technologies that enables carbon-neutral mobility, especially in heavy-duty on- or off-road applications. In this paper, a methodological procedure for the design of the combustion system of a hydrogen-fueled, direct injection spark ignited commercial vehicle engine is described. In a preliminary step, the ability of the commercial 3D computational fluid dynamics (CFD) code AVL FIRE classic to reproduce the characteristics of the gas jet, introduced into a quiescent environment by a dedicated H2 injector, is established. This is based on two parts: Temporal and numerical discretization sensitivity analyses ensure that the spatial and temporal resolution of the simulations is adequate, and comparisons to a comprehensive set of experiments demonstrate the accuracy of the simulations. The measurements used for this purpose rely on the well-known schlieren technique and use helium as a safe substitute for H2. They reveal how the jet properties

Cassone Potenza, Magda Elvira, Gaballo, Maria Rosaria, Geiler, Jan Niklas, Iacobazzi, Marino, Cornetti, Giovanni, Kulzer, Andre Casal

Computational Method to Determine the Cooling Airflow Utilization Ratio of Passenger Cars Considering Component Deformation

2024-01-2975To be published on 07/02/2024

In order to improve the efficiency of passenger cars, developments focus on decreasing their aerodynamic drag, part of which is caused by cooling air. Thus, car manufacturers try to seal the cooling air path to prevent leakage flows. Nevertheless, gaps between the single components of the cooling air path widen due to the deformation of components under aerodynamic load. For simulating the cooling airflow utilization ratio (CAUR), computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations are used, which neglect component deformation. In this paper, a computational method aiming at sufficient gap resolution and determining the CAUR of passenger cars under the consideration of component deformation is developed. Therefore, a partitioned approach of fluid structure interaction (FSI) simulations is used. The fluid field is simulated in OpenFOAM, whereas the structural simulations are conducted using Pam-Crash. In order to validate the simulation results, the CAUR of a battery electric and an internal

Hübner, Jan Marcel, Hähnel, Mathias, Lange, Sven, Lemke, Matthias, Joksimovic, Ivan

Optimization-Based Battery Thermal Management for Improved Regenerative Braking in CEP Vehicles

2024-01-2974To be published on 07/02/2024

The courier express parcel service industry (CEP industry) has experienced significant changes in the recent years due to increasing parcel volume. At the same time, the electrification of the vehicle fleets poses additional challenges. A major advantage of battery electric CEP vehicles compared to internal combustion engine vehicles is the ability to regenerate the kinetic energy of the vehicle in the frequent deceleration phases during parcel delivery. If the battery is cold the maximum recuperation power of the powertrain is limited by a reduced chemical reaction rate inside the battery. In general, the maximum charging power of the battery depends on the state of charge and the battery temperature. Due to the low power demand for driving during CEP operation, the battery self-heating is comparably low under cold ambient conditions. Without active conditioning of the battery, potential regenerative energy is lost as a result of the cold battery. This paper proposes an optimization

Rehm, Dominik, Krost, Jonathan, Meywerk, Martin, Czarnetzki, Walter

Impact of AdBlue Composition and Water Purity on Particle Number Increase

2024-01-3012To be published on 07/02/2024

Previous studies have shown that dosing AdBlue into the exhaust system of diesel engines to reduce nitrogen oxides can lead to an increase in the number of particles (PN). In addition to the influencing factors of exhaust gas temperature, exhaust gas mass flow and dosing quantity, the dosed medium itself (AdBlue) is not considered as a possible influence due to its regulation in ISO standard 22241. However, as the standard specifies limit value ranges for the individual regulated properties and components for newly sold AdBlue, in reality there is still some margin in the composition. This paper investigates the particle number increase due to AdBlue dosing using several CPCs. The increase in PN is determined by measuring the number of particles after DPF and thus directly before dosing as well as tailpipe. Several AdBlue products from different sources and countries are measured and their composition is also analyzed with regard to the limit values regulated in the standard. This

Herold, Tim, Noone, Patrick, Beidl, Christian, Boldt, Thomas, Hochholzner, Michael, Kontin, Sinisa

Low NOx Emissions Performance after 800,000 Miles Aging Using CDA and an Electric Heater

2024-01-3011To be published on 07/02/2024

Engine and aftertreatment solutions have been identified to meet the upcoming ultra-low NOX regulations on heavy duty vehicles in the United States and Europe. These standards will require changes to current conventional aftertreatment systems for dealing with low exhaust temperature scenarios while increasing the useful life of the engine and aftertreatment system. Previous studies have shown feasibility of meeting the US EPA and California Air Resource Board (CARB) requirements. This work includes a 15L diesel engine equipped with cylinder deactivation (CDA) and an aftertreatment system that was fully DAAAC aged to 800,000 miles. The aftertreatment system includes an e-heater (electric heater), light-off Selective Catalytic Reduction (LO-SCR) followed by a primary aftertreatment system containing a DPF and SCR. To explore the low power potential in combination with CDA and to minimize the fuel and CO2 penalty, the e-heater was set to both a 2.5 and a 5 kW limit, even though it was

Kramer, Jan, Rice, Michael, Zavala, Bryan, Sharp, Christopher, McCarthy, James, Karrer, Ben

Turbocharging system selection for a hydrogen-fuelled spark-ignition internal combustion engine for heavy-duty applications

2024-01-3019To be published on 07/02/2024

Nowadays, green hydrogen can play a crucial role in a successful clean energy transition, thus reaching net zero emissions in the transport sector. Moreover, hydrogen exploitation in internal combustion engines is favoured by its suitable combustion properties and quasi-zero harmful emissions. High flame speeds enable a lean combustion approach, which provides high efficiency and reduces NOx emissions. However, high air flow rates are required to achieve the load levels typical of heavy-duty applications. In this framework, the present study aims to investigate the required boosting system of a 6-cylinder, 13-liter heavy-duty spark ignition engine through 1D numerical simulation. A comparison among various architectures of the turbocharging system and the size of each component is presented, thus highlighting limitations and potentialities of each architecture and providing important insights for the selection of the best turbocharging system

Pucillo, Francesco, Millo, Federico, Piano, Andrea, Giordana, Sergio, Rapetto, Nicola, Paulicelli, Fabio

Supercharger Boosting on H2 ICE for Heavy Duty applications

2024-01-3006To be published on 07/02/2024

Commercial vehicle powertrain is called to respect a challenging roadmap for CO2 emissions reduction, quite complex to achieve just improving technologies currently on the market. In this perspective alternative solutions are gaining interest, and the use of green H2 as fuel for ICE is considered a high potential solution with fast and easy adoption. NOx emission is still a problem for H2 ICE and can be managed operating the engine with lean air fuel ratio all over the engine map. This combustion strategy will challenge the boosting system as lean H2 combustion will require quite higher air flow compared to diesel for the same power density in steady state. Similar problem will show up in transient response particularly when acceleration starts from low load and the exhaust gases enthalpy is very poor and insufficient to spin the turbine. The analysis presented in this paper will show and quantify the positive impact that a supercharger has on both the above mentions problems. It is

Andrisani, Nicola, Bagal, Nilesh

Miller Cycle and Internal EGR in Diesel Engines Using Alternative Fuels

2024-01-3020To be published on 07/02/2024

The Single Cylinder Research Engine (SCRE) at the Institute of Internal Combustion Engines and Powertrain Systems is equipped with a variable valve train that allows to switch between regular intake valve lift and early intake valve closing (Miller). On the exhaust side, a secondary valve lift on each valve is possible with adjustable back pressure and thus the possibility of realising internal EGR. In combination with alternative fuels, even if they are Drop-In capable as HVO, properties differ and can influence the emission and efficiency behaviour. The investigations of this paper are focusing on regenerative Drop-In fuel (HVO), fossil fuel (B7), and an oxygenate (OME), that needs adaptions at the engine control unit, but offers further emission potential. By commissioning a 2-stage boost system, it is possible to fully equalize the air mass in Miller mode compared to the normal valve lift. This enables a comprehensive analysis of the behavior of the fuels under different boundary

Knost, Friedemar, Beidl, Christian

Reduction of Flow-induced Noise in Refrigeration Cycles

2024-01-2972To be published on 07/02/2024

In electrified vehicles, auxiliary units can be a dominant source of noise, one of which is the refrigerant scroll compressor. Compared to vehicles with combustion engines, e-vehicles require larger refrigerant compressors, as in addition to the interior, also the battery and the electric motors have to be cooled. Currently, scroll compressors are widely used in the automotive industry, which generate one pressure pulse per revolution due to their discontinuous compression principle. This results in speed-dependent pressure fluctuations as well as higher-harmonic pulsations that arise from reflections. These fluctuations spread through the refrigeration cycle and cause the vibration excitation of refrigerant lines and heat exchangers. The sound transmission path in the air conditioning heat exchanger integrated in the dashboard is particularly critical. Various silencer configurations can be used to dampen these pulsations. This paper compares the acoustic and thermodynamic performance

Saur, Lukas, Heidegger, Patrick, Naeger, Christoph, Becker, Stefan

Metrics based design of electromechanical coupled reduced order model of an electric powertrain for NVH assessment

2024-01-2913To be published on 06/12/2024

Electric vehicles offer cleaner transportation with lower emissions, thus their increased popularity. Although, electric powertrains contribute to quieter vehicles, the shift from internal combustion engines to electric powertrains presents new Noise, Vibration, and Harshness challenges. Unlike traditional engines, electric powertrains produce distinctive tonal noise, notably from motor whistles and gear whine. These tonal components have frequency content, sometimes above 10 kHz. Furthermore, the housing of the powertrain is the interface between the excitation from the driveline via the bearings and the radiated noise (NVH). Acoustic features of the radiated noise can be predicted by utilising the transmitted forces from the bearings. Due to tonal components at higher frequencies and dense modal content, full flexible multibody dynamics simulations are computationally expensive. Based on previously developed metrics for sound quality, a methodology is proposed with the requirements

Ricardo Souza, Marcos, Offner, Guenter, Mohammadpour, Mahdi, Andreou, Panagiotis, Theodossiades, Stephanos

Experimental Study of the Acoustics of a Electric Refrigerant Scroll Compressor

2024-01-2924To be published on 06/12/2024

In electrified vehicles, auxiliary units can be a dominant source of noise, one of which is the refrigerant scroll compressor. Compared to vehicles with combustion engines, e-vehicles require larger refrigerant compressors, as in addition to the interior, the battery and the electric motors must be cooled. The compressor causes the acoustic excitation of other refrigeration circuit components and the chassis via pressure pulsations and vibration transmission, as well as emitting airborne sound directly. Sound measurements have been performed in an anechoic chamber to investigate the influence of operating conditions on the acoustics of an electric scroll compressor. This paper investigates the influence of the operating conditions on compressor acoustics and shows that rotation speed is the main factor influencing compressor noise. The sound spectra of fluid, structure and airborne noise are dominated by speed-dependent, tonal components. Additionally the effect of varying pressure

Saur, Lukas, Becker, Stefan

Efficient engine encapsulation strategy using poroelastic finite element simulation

2024-01-2957To be published on 06/12/2024

With the increasing importance of electrified powertrains, electric motors and gear boxes become an important NVH source especially regarding whining noises in the high frequency range. Engine encapsulation noise treatments become often necessary and present some implementation, modeling as well as optimization issues due to complex environments with contact uncertainties, pass-throughs and critical uncovered areas. Relying purely on mass spring systems is often a too massive and relatively unefficient solution whenever the uncovered areas are dominant. Coverage is key and often a combination of hybrid backfoamed porous stiff shells with integral foams for highly complex shapes offer an optimized trade-off between acoustic performance, weight and costs. A dedicated experimental set-up has been designed in order to measure both structureborne and airborne NVH performances of engine encapsulation insulators applied on an engine casing placed in a coupled reverberant / semi-anechoïc rooms

Duval, Arnaud, Crignon, Guillaume, Goret, Mickael, lei, Lei, Wilkinson, Alexandre, Dauchez, Nicolas, POLAC, Laurent

Simulation and test methods on NVH performance of axle system

2024-01-2950To be published on 06/12/2024

For electric vehicles, road noise, together with wind noise, is the most important contributor for vehicle interior noise. Road noise is very dependent on the NVH behavior of axle system including wheels and tires. Axle system is part of vehicle platform which should be compatible with different body variants. Therefore, il is important to characterize the NVH performance of an axle system independently of car body structure, so that the design the axle can be optimized at the early stage according to the global requirements of all the related vehicles. The best way to characterize the NVH performance of an axle system is to measure the blocked forces on an appropriate test rig. However, the measurement of blocked forces from an axle system requires very stiff boundary conditions which is difficult to achieve in practice. For axles with rigid mountings, it is nearly impossible to measure the blocked forces on test rig. Due to the presence of numerous joints and metallic structures, the

Wang, Shanjin, Gagiu, Constantin

A new Evaluation Approach for NVH Efficiency of E-Drive Encapsulations

2024-01-2955To be published on 06/12/2024

Encapsulations of E-drive systems are gaining importance in electric mobility, since they are simple measure to improve the noise behavior of the drive. Current experimental evaluation methods however pose substantial challenges for the test personnel and are associated with considerable effort in both time and cost. Evaluating the encapsulation on an e-drive test bed, for example, requires a functional e-drive and test bed resources. Evaluations in the vehicle on the other hand make objective assessments difficult and are subject to increasingly limited availability of prototype vehicles fit for NVH testing. To overcome these challenges, AVL has developed a new experimental evaluation method for the NVH efficiency of e-drive encapsulations. In this method, the e-drive is freely suspended in a semi-anechoic chamber and its structure is excited using shakers while the radiated noise with and without encapsulation is measured. The NVH efficiency of the encapsulation is evaluated by

Schecker, Daniel, Uerlings, Peter, Gojo, Josef, Graf, Bernhard

Reduced order model for modal analysis of electric motors considering material and dimensional variations

2024-01-2945To be published on 06/12/2024

With the electrification of the automotive industry, electric motors have emerged as pivotal components. A profound understanding of their vibrational behaviour stands as a cornerstone for guaranteeing not only the optimal performance and reliability of vehicles in terms of noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH), but also the overall driving experience. The use of conventional finite element analysis (FEA) techniques for identification of the natural frequencies characteristics of electric motors often imposes significant computational loads, particularly when accurate material and geometrical properties and wider frequency ranges are considered. On the other hand, traditional reduced order vibroacoustic methodologies utilising simplified 2D representations, introduce several assumptions regarding boundary conditions and properties, leading to sacrifices in the accuracy of the results. To address these limitations, this study presents a novel electric motor modal analysis approach by

Andreou, Panagiotis, Theodossiades, Stephanos, Hajjaj, Amal Z., Mohammadpour, Mahdi, Ricardo Souza, Marcos

Acoustic quality assurance during End of Line engine test approval

2024-01-2922To be published on 06/12/2024

Liebherr Machines Bulle SA designs and produces High-quality diesel engines, injection systems as well as hydraulic components. Liebherr has an Acoustic End of Line (A-EoL) system on serial test benches. All engines are measured, and noises are evaluated by operators. This subjective evaluation leads to dispersion on the evaluations, particularly for whining noise. To achieve Swiss quality requirements and ensure customer satisfaction, Liebherr wishes to define a new methodology to find a quantitative and objective criterion to set a robust engine noise compliance standard. This new methodology is based on near field microphone measurement of an engine run-down. First, whining noise signatures are extracted from the raw signal. Secondly, psychoacoustic indicators are calculated on the isolated signatures. Thresholds are then established to validate engine deliveries. Finally, this process combining advanced signal processing and psychoacoustics is automated using the Ansys Sound Python

Akrout, Samir, Denisse, Robin, Dendievel, Clement, Fineschi, Fabio

Artificial Neural Network for Airborne Noise Prediction of a Diesel Engine

2024-01-2929To be published on 06/12/2024

The engine acoustic character has always represented the product DNA, owing to its strong correlation with in-cylinder pressure gradient, components design and perceived quality. Best practice for engine acoustic characterization requires the employment of a hemi-anechoic chamber, a significant number of sensors and special acoustic insulation for engine ancillaries and transmission. This process is highly demanding in terms of cost and time due to multiple engine working points to be tested and consequent data post-processing. Since Neural Networks potentially predicting capabilities are apparently un-exploited in this research field, the following paper provides a tool able to acoustically estimate engine performance, processing system inputs (e.g. Injected Fuel, Rail Pressure) thanks to the employment of Multi Layer Perceptron (MLP, a feed forward Network working in stationary points). In particular, the investigation addressed the estimation of direct Combustion Noise (CN), Sound

Credo, Giuseppe, Taddeo, Vincent, Aglietti, Filippo

The irrotational intensity: an efficient tool to understand the vibration energy propagation in complex structures using an FE Model

2024-01-2942To be published on 06/12/2024

Although structural intensity was introduced in the 80's, this concept never found practical applications, neither for numerical nor experimental approaches. Quickly, it has been pointed out that only the irrotational component of the intensity offers an easy interpretation of the dynamic behavior of structures by visualizing the vibration energy flow. This is especially valuable at mid and high frequency where the structure response understanding can be challenging. A new methodolodgy is proposed in order to extract this irrotational intensity field from the Finite Element Model of assembled structures such as Bodies In White. This methodology is hybrid in the sense that it employs two distinct solvers: a dynamic solver to compute the structural dynamic response and a thermal solver to address a diffusion equation analogous to the thermal conduction built from the previous dynamic response. The field separation is based on the Helmholtz-Hodge theorem, that ensures the computations

Gagliardini, Laurent, Takhchi, Jamal, Sadoulet-reboul, Emeline, Ouisse, Morvan, Bornet, Frederic

A Finite-Element-Simulation Workflow to Investigate the Aero- and Vibro-Acoustic Signature of an Enclosed Centrifugal Fan

2024-01-2940To be published on 06/12/2024

Centrifugal fans are applied in many industrial and civil applications, such as manufacturing processes and building HVAC systems. They can also be found in automotive applications. Noise-reduction mea- sures for centrifugal fans are often challenging to establish, as acous- tic performance may be considered a tertiary purchase criterion after energetic efficiency and price. Nonetheless, their versatile application raises the demand for noise control. In a low-Mach-number centrifugal fan, acoustic waves are predominantly excited by aerodynamic fluctu- ations in the flow field and transmit to the exterior via the housing and duct walls. The scientific literature documents numerous mech- anisms that cause flow-induced sound generation, even though only some are considered well-understood. Numerical simulation methods are widely used to gather spatially high-resolved insights into physical fields. However, for a centrifugal fan, the numerical simulation of the coupled aero- and

Heidegger, Patrick, Czwielong, Felix, Schoder, Stefan, Becker, Stefan, Kaltenbacher, Manfred

Experimental Study of Lignin Fuels for CI Engines

2024-37-0022To be published on 06/12/2024

This study explores the feasibility of using a sustainable lignin-based fuel, consisting of 44 % lignin, 50 % ethanol, and 6 % water, in conventional compression ignition (CI) marine engines. Through experimental evaluations on a modified small-bore CI engine, we identified the primary challenges associated with lignin-based fuel, including engine startup and shutdown issues due to solvent evaporation and lignin solidification inside the fuel system, and deposit formation on cylinder walls leading to piston ring seizure. To address these issues, we developed a fuel switching system transitioning from lignin-based fuel to cleaning fuel with 85 vol% of acetone, 10 vol% of water and 5 vol% of ignition improving additive, effectively preventing system clogs. Additionally, optimizing injection parameters, adopting a constant pressure delivery valve, and fine-tuning injection timing mitigated lignin deposit formation related to incomplete combustion or spray tip penetration to the cylinder

Terauchi, Motoki, Simonsen, Tor, Mortensen, Simon, Schramm, Jesper, Ivarsson, Anders

Experimental Assessment of Drop-in Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil (HVO) in a Medium-Duty Diesel Engine for Low-emissions Marine Applications

2024-37-0023To be published on 06/12/2024

Nowadays, the push for more ecological low-carbon propulsion systems is high in all mobility sectors, including the recreational or light-commercial boating, where propulsion is usually provided by internal combustion engines derived from road applications. In this work, the effects of replacing conventional fossil-derived B7 diesel with Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil (HVO) were experimentally investigated in a modern Medium-Duty Engine, using the advanced biofuel as drop-in and testing according to the ISO 8178 marine standard. The compounded results showed significant benefits in terms of NOx, Soot, mass fuel consumption and WTW CO2 thanks to the inner properties of the aromatic-free, hydrogen-rich renewable fuel, with no impact on the engine power and minimal deterioration of the volumetric fuel economy

Cosseddu, Cinzia, Spedicato, Tonio, Pennazio, Davide, Vassallo, Alberto, Fittavolini, Corrado

Acceleration of Fast-SCR Reactions by Eliminating “The Ammonia Blocking Effect

2024-37-0001To be published on 06/12/2024

The recent and future trends of energy for heavy-duty vehicles are considered e-fuel, H2, and electricity, and the Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) system is necessary for achieving the goals of zero-emission internal combustion engines that use e-fuel and H2 as a fuel. The Japanese automotive industry uses a Cu-zeolite based SCR catalyst since Vanadium is designated as a specific chemical substance, which the Ministry of Environment prohibits its release into the atmosphere. This study attempted purification rate improvement by controlling the NH3 supply with a mini-reactor and by simulated exhaust gas. Specifically, the experiment was done by examining the effect of the pulse amplitude, frequency, and duty ratio on the purification rate by supplying the NH3 pulse injection to the test piece Cu-chabazite catalyst. Additionally, the results of the reactor experiment were validated by numerical simulation considering the detailed surface reaction processes on the catalyst. The

Morita, Daiki, Kotani, Yuya, Zu, Qiuyue, Yoshida, Fuka, Sok, Ratnak, Kusaka, Jin

Sustainable Fuels for Long-Haul Truck Engines: a 1D-CFD Analysis

2024-37-0027To be published on 06/12/2024

Heavy duty truck engines are quite difficult to electrify, due to the large amount of energy required on-board, in order to achieve a range comparable to that of diesels. This paper considers a commercial 6-cylinder engine with a displacement of 12.8 L, developed in two different versions. As a standard diesel, the engine is able to deliver more than 420 kW at 1800 rpm, whereas in the CNG configuration the maximum power output is 330 kW at 1800 rpm. Maintaining the same combustion chamber design of the last version, a theoretical study is carried out in order to run the engine on Hydrogen, compressed at 700 bar. The study is based on GT-Power simulations, adopting a predictive combustion model, calibrated with experimental results. The study shows that the implementation of a combustion system running on lean mixtures of Hydrogen, permits to cancel the emissions of CO2, while maintaining the same power output of the CNG engine. Moreover, the amount of NOx is very low (<20 ppm

Volza, Antonello, Pisapia, Alfredo, Caprioli, Stefano, Rinaldini, Carlo, Mattarelli, Enrico

Acoustic VS reliability. Case study of automotive components undergoing vibration endurance tests

2024-01-2948To be published on 06/12/2024

During design development phases, automotive components undergo a strict validation process aiming to demonstrate requested levels of performance and durability. In some cases, specific developments encounter a major blocking point : decoupling systems responsible for optimal acoustic performances. On the one hand, damping rubbers need to be soft to comply with noise, vibration & harshness criteria. However, softness would provoke such high amplitudes during vibration endurance tests that components would suffer from failures. On the other hand, stiffer rubbers, designed for durability purposes, would fail to meet noise compliance. The rubber design development goes through a double-faced dilemma : design with acceptable trade-off between NVH and durability, and efficient ways to develop compliant designs. This paper illustrates two case studies where different methodologies are applied to validate decoupling systems from both acoustic and reliability perspectives. The goal was to

Bonato, Marco, Bennouna, Saad, Ravineala, Tudor

Transient Numerical Analysis of a Dissipative Expansion Chamber Muffler

2024-01-2935To be published on 06/12/2024

Expansion chamber mufflers are commonly applied to reduce noise in HVAC. Dissipative materials, such as microperforated plates (MPPs), are often applied to achieve a more broadband mitigation effect. Such mufflers are typically characterized in the frequency domain, assuming time-harmonic excitation. From a computational point of view, transient analyses are more challenging. A transformation of the equivalent fluid model or impedance boundary conditions into the time domain induces convolution integrals. We apply the recently proposed finite element formulation of a time domain equivalent fluid (TDEF) model to simulate the transient response of dissipative acoustic media to arbitrary unsteady excitation. As most time domain approaches, the formulation relies on approximating the frequency-dependent equivalent fluid parameters by a sum of rational functions composed of real-valued or complex-conjugated poles. The arising convolution integrals are indirectly computed by solving a set of

Maurerlehner, Paul, Mayrhofer, Dominik, Mehrgou, Mehdi, Kaltenbacher, Manfred, Schoder, Stefan

HVAC Blower: a Steady State RANS Noise Prediction Method

2024-01-2937To be published on 06/12/2024

In an ever-transforming sector such as that of private road transport, major changes in the propulsion systems entail a change in the perception of the noise sources and the annoyance they cause. As compared to the scenario encountered in vehicles equipped with an internal combustion engine (ICE), in electrically propelled vehicles the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) system represents a more prominent source of noise affecting a car’s passenger cabin. By virtue of the quick turnaround, steady state Reynolds-averaged Navier Stokes (RANS)- based noise source models are a handy tool to predict the acoustic power generated by passenger car HVAC blowers. The study shows that the most eminent noise source type is the dipole source associated with fluctuating pressures on solid surfaces. A noise map is generated from the noise source models data, giving indications of how changes in operating conditions affect the acoustic output of the machine throughout its operating range

Pietroniro, Asuka Gabriele, Kabral, Raimo, Huang, Zhongjie, Backman, Joakim, Knutsson, Magnus, Abom, Mats

1D Modeling of a High-Performance Engine Fueled with H2 And Equipped with A Low NOx Aftertreatment Device

2024-37-0009To be published on 06/12/2024

Hydrogen engines are currently considered as a viable solution to preserve the internal combustion engine as a power unit for vehicle propulsion. In particular, lean-burn gasoline Spark-Ignition (SI) engines have been a major subject of investigations due to the reduced emission levels and high thermodynamic efficiency. This strategy is suitable for the purpose of passenger car applications and cannot be tailored in the field of high performance engine, where the air mass delivered would require oversized turbocharging systems or more complex charging solutions. For this reason, the range of stoichiometric feeding condition is explored in the high performance engine, leading to the consequent issue of abatement of pollutant emissions. In this work a 1D model will be applied to the modeling of a V8 engine fueled with DI of hydrogen. The engine has been derived by a gasoline configuration and adapted to hydrogen in such a way to keep the same performance. The lambda condition has been

Montenegro, Gianluca, Marinoni, Andrea, Della Torre, Augusto, D'Errico, Gianluca, Onorati, Angelo, Cerri, Tarcisio

The influence of design operating conditions on engine coolant pump absorption in real driving scenarios

2024-37-0015To be published on 06/12/2024

Reducing CO2 emissions in on-the-road transport is important to limit global warming and follow a green transition towards net zero Carbon by 2050. In a long-term scenario, electrification will be the future of transportation. However, in the mid-term, the priority should be given more strongly to other technological alternatives (e.g., decarbonization of the electrical energy and battery recharging time). In the short- to mid-term, the technological and environmental reinforcement of ICEs could participate in the effort of decarbonization, also matching the need to reduce harmful pollutant emissions, mainly during traveling in urban areas. Engine thermal management represents a viable solution considering its potential benefits and limited implementation costs compared to other technologies. A variable flow coolant pump actuated independently from the crankshaft represents the critical component of a thermal management system. Adjusting the flow rate independently from the engine

DI BARTOLOMEO, MARCO, Di Battista, Davide, Cipollone, Roberto, Fremondi, Fabrizio, Camagni, Umberto

Assessing Heavy Duty Vehicle CO2 Emissions for Qualification as a Zero Emissions Vehicle

2024-37-0007To be published on 06/12/2024

The global transportation industry, and road freight in particular, faces formidable challenges in reducing Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions; both Europe and the US have already enabled legislation with CO2 / GHG reduction targets. In Europe, targets are set on a fleet level basis: a CO2 baseline has already been established using Heavy Duty Vehicle (HDV) data collected and analyzed by the European Environment Agency (EEA) in 2019/2020. This baseline data has been published as the reference for the required CO2 reductions. More recently, the EU has proposed a Zero Emissions Vehicle definition of 3g CO2/t-km. The Zero Emissions Vehicle (ZEV) designation is expected to be key to a number of market instruments that improve the economics and practicality of hydrogen trucks. This paper assesses the permissible amount of carbon-based fuel in hydrogen fueled vehicles – the Pilot Energy Ratio (PER) – for each regulated subgroup of HDVs in the baseline data set. The analysis indicates that a PER

Mumford, David K., Williams, Graham, Leclercq, Nadege

The Potential of Hydrogen High Pressure Direct Injection Toward Future Emissions Compliance: Optimizing Engine-Out NOx and Thermal Efficiency

2024-37-0005To be published on 06/12/2024

By building on mature internal combustion engine (ICE) hardware combined with dedicated hydrogen (H2) technology, the H2-ICE has excellent potential to accelerate CO2 reduction. H2-ICE concepts can therefore contribute to realizing the climate targets in an acceptable timeframe. In the landscape of H2-ICE combustion concepts, High Pressure Direct Injection (HPDI™) is an attractive option considering its high thermal efficiency, wide load range and its applicability to on-road as well as off-road heavy-duty equipment. Still, H2-HPDI is characterized by diffusion combustion, giving rise to significant NOx emissions. In this paper, the potential of H2-HPDI toward compliance with future emissions legislation is explored on a 1.8L single-cylinder research engine. With tests on multiple load-speed points, Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) was shown to be an effective measure for reducing engine-out NOx, although at the cost of a few efficiency points. Furthermore, the use of EGR was compared

Willems, Robbert, Seykens, Xander, Bekdemir, Cemil, Doosje, Erik, Van Gompel, Peter

Effect of Dithering on post-catalyst exhaust gas composition and on short time regeneration of deactivated PdO/Al2O3 catalysts under real engine conditions

2024-37-0002To be published on 06/12/2024

Fossil fuels such as natural gas used in engines still play the most important role worldwide despite such measures as the German energy transition which however is also exacerbating climate change as a result of carbon dioxide emissions. One way of reducing carbon dioxide emissions is the choice of energy sources and with it a more favourable chemical composition. Natural gas, for instance, which consist mainly of methane, has the highest hydrogen to carbon ratio of all hydrocarbons, which means that carbon dioxide emissions can be reduced by up to 35% when replacing diesel with natural gas. Although natural gas engines show an overall low CO2 and pollutant emissions level, methane slip due to incomplete combustion occurs, causing methane emissions with a more than 20 higher global warming potential than CO2. Additionally, further tightening of emissions legislation is to be expected bringing methane emissions even more into focus making exhaust gas aftertreatment issues remain

Tomin, Sebastian, Wagner, Uwe, Koch, Thomas

Influence of Intake Charge Temperature and EGR Rate on the Combustion and Emission Characteristics of Ammonia/Diesel Dual-Fuel Engine

2024-37-0025To be published on 06/12/2024

Ammonia has emerged as a promising carbon-free alternative fuel for internal combustion engines (ICE), particularly in large-bore engine applications. However, integrating ammonia into conventional engines presents challenges, prompting the exploration of innovative combustion strategies like dual-fuel combustion. Nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions have emerged as a significant obstacle to the widespread adoption of ammonia in ICE. Various studies suggest that combining exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) with adjustments in inlet temperature and diesel injection timing can effectively mitigate nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions across diverse operating conditions in dual-fuel diesel engines. This study conducts a numerical investigation into the impact of varying inlet charge temperatures (330K, 360K, and 390K) and EGR rates (0%, 10%, and 20%) on the combustion and emission characteristics of an ammonia/diesel dual-fuel engine operating under high-load conditions, while considering different

Hoseinpour, Marziyeh, Karami, Rahim, Salahi, Mohammad Mahdi, Mahmoudzadeh Andwari, Amin, Gharehghani, Ayat, Garcia, Antonio

Development of a Hybrid-Electric Medium-HD Demonstrator Vehicle with a Pent-Roof SI Natural Gas Engine

2024-37-0026To be published on 06/12/2024

In response to global climate change, there is a widespread push to reduce carbon emissions in the transportation sector. For the difficult to decarbonize heavy-duty (HD) vehicle sector, lower carbon intensity fuels can offer a low-cost, near-term solution for CO2 reduction. The use of natural gas can provide such an alternative for HD vehicles while the increasing availability of renewable natural gas affords the opportunity for much deeper reductions in net-CO2 emissions. With this in consideration, the US National Renewable Energy Laboratory launched the Natural Gas Vehicle Research and Development Project to stimulate advancements in technology and availability of natural gas vehicles. As part of this program, Southwest Research Institute developed a hybrid-electric medium-HD vehicle (class 6) to demonstrate a substantial CO2 reduction over the baseline diesel vehicle and ultra-low NOx emissions. The development included the conversion of a 5.2L diesel engine to spark-ignited

Wallace, Julian, Mitchell, Robert, Rao, Sandesh, Jones, Kevin, Kramer, Dustin, Wang, Yanyu, Chambon, Paul, Sjovall, Scott, Williams, D. Ryan

Advanced H2 ICE development aiming for full compatibility with classical engines while ensuring zero-impact tailpipe emissions

2024-37-0006To be published on 06/12/2024

The societies around the world remain far from meeting the agreed primary goal outlined under the 2015 Paris Agreement on climate change: reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions to keep global average temperature rise to well below 20°C by 2100 and making every effort to stay underneath of a 1.5°C elevation. Current emissions are rebounding from a brief decline during the economic downturn related to the Covid-19 pandemic. To get back on track to support the realization of the goal of the Paris Agreement, research suggests that GHG emissions should be roughly halved by 2030 on a trajectory to reach net zero by around mid-century.2 Although these are averaged global targets, every sector and country or market can and must contribute, especially higher-income and more developed countries bear the greater capacity to act. In 2020 direct tailpipe emissions from transport represented around 8 GtC02e, or nearly 15% of total emissions. This number increases to just under 10 GtC02e when

Koerfer, Thomas, Durand, Thomas, Busch, Hartwig

Experimental and Simulation Study of Zero Flow Impact on Hybrid Vehicle Emissions

2024-37-0036To be published on 06/12/2024

Combustion engines in hybrid vehicles turn on and off several times during a typical passenger car trip. Each engine restart may pose a risk of excessive tailpipe emissions in real-drive conditions if the after-treatment system fails to maintain an adequate temperature level during zero flow. In view of the tightening worldwide tailpipe emissions standards and real-world conformity requirements, it is important to detect and resolve such risks via cost-effective engineering tools relying on accurate 3d analysis of the thermal and chemical behavior of exhaust systems. In this work, we present a series of experiments to examine the impact of zero-flow duration on the exhaust system cooling and subsequent emissions risk. We also present a catalyst model calibrated to predict the 3d thermal and chemical behavior under normal and zero flow conditions. Particular emphasis is given to the phenomena of free convection and thermal radiation dominating the heat transfer at zero flow. Following

Emmanouil, Valesia, Koltsakis, Grigorios, Kotoulas, Costas

Evaluation of an optimal engine configuration for a SI Engine Fueled with Ethanol for Stationary Applications

2024-37-0024To be published on 06/12/2024

This work aims at investigating the optimal configuration of an internal combustion engine fueled with bio-ethanol for improving its brake power and efficiency as well as for reducing the NOx emissions, in stationary applications. A turbocharged spark ignition engine characterized by a single-point injection was preliminarily considered; subsequently, a direct injection configuration was investigated. For both cases, a 1-D numerical model was developed to compare the injection configurations under stoichiometric conditions and different spark timings. The analysis shows that the direct injection guarantees: a limited improvement of brake power and efficiency when the same spark timing is adopted, while NOx emissions increases by 20%; an increase of 6% in brake power and 2 percentage points in brake thermal efficiency by adopting the knock limited spark advance, but an almost double NOx emissions increase. In order to exploit the advantages of the direct injection, an engine

Perrone, Diego, Falbo, Luigi, Falbo, Biagio, Castiglione, Teresa

Potential of Serial Hybrid Powertrain Concepts towards decarbonizing the Off-Highway Machinery

2024-37-0018To be published on 06/12/2024

Today’s engines used in Agriculture, Mining and Construction are designed for robustness and cost. Here, the Diesel powertrain is the established mainstream solution, offering long operation times without refueling at any desired power rating. In view of the steps towards Carbon Neutrality by 2050 this segment of the Transportation Sector needs to reduce its CO2 emissions. Currently, the EU and US emissions legislations (EU Stage V / EPA Tier4) do not include a CO2 reduction scheme but is expected to change with the next update towards EU Stage VI / EPA Tier5 coming into effect 2030 and after. Larger power and operation range still require the use of renewable, liquid fuels or hydrogen. The cost-up of such fuels could be counterbalanced by more efficient engines in combination with a hybridized powertrain. The current paper therefore introduces a serial HEV solution for a large wheel loader application of ~20 t which is an example of a typical use-case from construction equipment

Weber, Jost, Schatorje, Jesper, Frekers, Yona, Herrmann, Olaf, Gries, Rafael

Guided Port Injection of Hydrogen as An Approach for Reducing Cylinder-To-Cylinder Deviations in Spark-Ignited H2 Engines – A Numerical Investigation

2024-37-0008To be published on 06/12/2024

The reduction of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions and ever stricter regulations on pollutant emissions in the transport sector require research and development of new, climate-friendly propulsion concepts. The use of renewable hydrogen as a fuel for internal combustion engines promises to provide a good solution especially for commercial vehicles. For optimum efficiency of the combustion process, hydrogen-specific engine components are required, which need to be tested on the test bench and analysed in simulation studies. This paper deals with the simulation-based investigation and optimisation of fuel injection in a 6-cylinder PFI commercial vehicle engine, which has been modified for hydrogen operation starting from a natural gas engine concept. The focus of the study is on a CNG-derived manifold design which has been adapted with regard to the injector interface and is already equipped with so-called gas injection guiding tubes for targeted fuel injection in front of the

Jung, Philipp Emanuel, Guenthner, Michael, Walter, Nicolas

Exploring methanol and naphtha as alternative fuels for a hybrid-ICE battery-driven light-duty vehicle

2024-37-0021To be published on 06/12/2024

In pursuing sustainable automotive technologies, exploring alternative fuels for hybrid vehicles is crucial in reducing environmental impact and aligning with global carbon emission reduction goals. This work compares methanol and naphtha as potential suitable alternative fuels for running in a battery-driven light-duty hybrid vehicle by comparing their performance with the diesel baseline engine. This work employs a 0-D vehicle simulation model within the GT-Power suite to replicate vehicle dynamics under the Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicles Test Cycle (WLTC). The vehicle choice enables the assessment of a delivery application scenario using distinct payload capacities: 0%, 25%, 50%, and 100%. The model is fed with engine maps derived from previous experimental work conducted in the same engine, in which a full calibration was obtained that ensures the engine's operability in a wide region of rotational speed and loads. The calibration suggested that the engine could operate in a

Iñiguez, Erasmo, Marco-Gimeno, Javier, Monsalve-Serrano, Javier, Garcia, Antonio

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